Mecca, the Kaaba, and the Quraysh

The Location of Mecca

Mecca is situated in the middle of the caravan routes that run parallel to the Red Sea between Yemen and Palestine. It is surrounded by several mountain ranges located about eighty kilometers from the shore. These mountains encircle a relatively narrow valley, almost sealing it off except for three entrances. One of these entrances connects it to the Yemeni route, the second one to a road close to the Red Sea (the Sea of Qulzum) near the port of Jeddah, and the third one leads to the road heading towards Palestine. Mecca's history goes back thousands of years, and it is believed to have been established as a resting place for caravan travelers due to the presence of some springs in the valley. Caravan travelers would set up their tents there, whether they were coming from Yemen on their way to Palestine or heading from Palestine towards Yemen.

It is highly likely that Ishmael, the son of Abraham, was the first to establish it as a dwelling place and residence after it had been merely a stopover for caravans and a marketplace for trade, facilitating exchanges between those coming from the southern part of the peninsula and those descending from the north.

Abraham (Peace Be Upon Him)

Before Ishmael, the history of Mecca is shrouded in mystery. It is possible that it was used as a place of worship even before Ishmael arrived and settled there. The story of Ishmael's arrival in Mecca is closely tied to the story of his father, Abraham (Peace Be Upon Him). Abraham was born in Iraq to a carpenter father who crafted idols for sale to his people, who worshipped these idols. As Abraham grew older and witnessed the creation of these idols by his own father, and then observed his people worshipping them and bestowing upon them great reverence, he began to doubt their authenticity. He asked his father how they could worship these idols that were crafted by human hands.

Abraham respected his own intellect and wished to convince people through reason to adopt his point of view. He took advantage of a moment when the people were absent and went to the idols. He smashed all of them except the largest one, placing the tool used to break them in its hand. When the people returned and saw the destruction, they asked who could have done such a thing. Abraham replied that the largest idol had committed the act and that they should ask it if it could speak. The people realized the absurdity of their worship, but Abraham was not satisfied with this symbolic act alone.

He began to ponder the concept of idol worship and reflect upon the true nature of the divine. One night, as he contemplated the heavens, he saw a star and said, "This is my Lord!" However, when the star set, he declared, "I do not like those that set." Next, he saw the moon shining brightly and said, "This is my Lord!" Yet, when the moon disappeared, he said, "Unless my Lord guides me, I will surely be among the people gone astray." Finally, when he saw the sun rising with all its brilliance, he exclaimed, "This is my Lord; this is the greatest!" But when the sun set, he declared to his people, "I am free from what you associate with Allah. Indeed, I have turned my face toward He who created the heavens and the earth, inclining toward truth, and I am not of those who associate others with Allah." (Quran, Surah Al-An'am, 6:76-79).

This marked the beginning of Abraham's journey towards monotheism and the rejection of idol worship.

Abraham and Sarah in Egypt

After Abraham's unsuccessful attempts to guide his people away from idol worship and the subsequent attempt by his people to throw him into a fire, he fled to Palestine, taking his wife Sarah with him. From there, he journeyed to Egypt. Egypt was ruled by the Hyksos kings at the time, and Sarah was known for her beauty. The Hyksos kings had a practice of taking beautiful married women, and Abraham was concerned that they might kill him to take Sarah as their own wife.

One night, the king of Egypt had a dream in which he saw Sarah as a married woman. Fearing the consequences, he returned her to Abraham, along with gifts and a maidservant named Hagar. Since Sarah had not borne any children despite years of marriage to Abraham, she encouraged him to marry Hagar. Abraham did so, and Hagar gave birth to Ishmael.

There are variations among different narrators about the story of Abraham's readiness to sacrifice his son, whether it was before or after the birth of Isaac, and whether it took place in Palestine or in the Arabian Peninsula.

Jewish historians argue that the intended sacrifice was Isaac, not Ishmael. However, according to Sheikh Abdelwahab El Naggar in his book "Stories of the Prophets," the sacrifice was Ishmael. His argument is based on the fact that the Torah itself describes the intended sacrifice as Abraham's "only son." Ishmael was the only son until the birth of Isaac. Therefore, if it was Isaac, it would not have been accurate to describe him as the "Only Son".

Accepting this interpretation would imply that the sacrifice took place in Palestine. This aligns with the idea that the sacrifice was made by Ishmael since he remained in Palestine with his mother, Hagar, while Isaac was associated with the Arabian Peninsula. The Quran does not explicitly mention the name of the son to be sacrificed, which has led to different interpretations among Muslim historians.

The Story of the Sacrifice and Redemption in the Quran

Abraham had a dream in which he saw himself sacrificing his son. Believing it to be a divine command, he approached his son and informed him of the dream. He said, "O my son, indeed I have seen in a dream that I [must] sacrifice you, so see what you think." His son responded, "O my father, do as you are commanded. You will find me, if Allah wills, of the steadfast."

As they both submitted to the divine command, Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son. However, before he could carry out the act, Allah called out to him, saying, "O Abraham, you have fulfilled the vision." Indeed, thus do We reward the doers of good. Indeed, this was the clear trial.

Instead of his son, Allah provided a great sacrifice, such as a ram, and it was this sacrifice that Abraham offered to God as a token of his obedience.

This story is a profound example of Abraham's unwavering faith and submission to God's will, as well as God's mercy and provision in response to such faith. It is commemorated annually during the Islamic holiday of Eid al-Adha (the Festival of Sacrifice), where Muslims around the world perform the act of sacrifice in remembrance of Abraham's obedience and God's mercy.

The Story in the History Novel

Some narrations depict this story in a poetic manner, inviting us to narrate it here, even though it may not be directly related to the history of Mecca. When Ibrahim saw in his dream that he should sacrifice his son, he realized that it was a command from his Lord. He told his son, "My son, take the rope and the cutting tool, and let's go to this hill to gather something for our family." The son complied and followed his father. Satan took the form of a man.

He approached the boy's mother and asked her if she knew where Ibrahim was taking their son. She replied that he was taking him to gather something for their family. Satan then said, "I swear that he is only taking him to sacrifice him." The mother responded, "No, he loves our son deeply and has great compassion for him. He believes that God has commanded him to do this." Satan insisted, "He claims that God has ordered him to do it." The mother replied, "If it is indeed God's command, then he must obey it." Satan left, frustrated.

He then caught up with the son, who was following his father. Satan cast doubts into the son's mind, similar to what he had done with his mother. However, the son responded just as his mother had. Satan approached Ibrahim, reminding him that the dream he had seen was a deception from Satan and that he would regret it. Ibrahim rejected Satan and cursed him. Satan retreated in disgrace.

Ibrahim consulted his son about the matter, and the son said, "Father, do as you are commanded. Strengthen your resolve and bind me securely so that you do not falter and spill my blood prematurely. Death is a severe test, and I am not sure if I will remain steadfast when I feel the pain. Sharpen your knife well so you may complete the task. If you lay me down to sacrifice me, place me face down so that you do not see my face, as your mercy might waver. If you see that my shirt is bloodied, give it to my mother to soothe her grief."

Ibrahim agreed and proceeded with the sacrifice. He tied the boy firmly and laid him face down. As he prepared to sacrifice his son, a voice from the heavens called out, "Ibrahim, you have fulfilled the dream. We have ransomed your son with a mighty sacrifice."

This is the story of sacrifice and redemption, representing the essence of submission to God's will in Islam. It underscores complete surrender to God's decree.

The Journey to Zamzam

Ishmael grew up alongside Isaac, and both sons received their father's affection equally. However, this situation caused strife with Sarah, who did not approve of the arrangement.

Sara became displeased, and upon seeing Ishmael strike his brother, Isaac, she demanded that Hagar and her son leave. Abraham, feeling that it was not suitable for Hagar and Ishmael to stay, took them to a remote southern valley where Mecca stands today. This valley was known for its caravans' stopovers during certain times of the year, but it would be deserted during other times.

Abraham left Hagar and Ishmael there with some supplies. When their provisions dwindled, and their water ran out, Hagar frantically searched for water between the hills of Safa and Marwah. She did this seven times until she found water gushing forth from the ground, which is now known as the Zamzam well. Ishmael and Hagar were saved, and they used the water to quench their thirst and sustain themselves.

This well of Zamzam later attracted the attention of some nearby tribes who decided to settle in the area. It became a significant location and eventually led to the establishment of Mecca.

Differences in Some Details Story

There is a consensus about the overall story, even though there may be differences in some details. Some critics may scrutinize specific aspects of the narration, but the general narrative remains widely accepted.

William Muir expresses doubts about the journey of Abraham and Ishmael to the Arabian Peninsula and dismisses the story as baseless. He suggests that this narrative might have been concocted by Jews before the rise of Islam, with the aim of forging a connection between themselves and the Arabs based on their shared lineage through Abraham, considering Isaac as the father of the Jews. If Ishmael is regarded as the father of the Arabs, then they would be considered distant relatives of the Jews, which would necessitate good treatment of Jewish settlers among the Arabs and facilitate Jewish trade in the Arabian Peninsula. Muir's argument is rooted in the belief that the religious practices of the Arab people at the time had no connection to the faith of Abraham.

He argues that the Arab society was deeply entrenched in paganism, which contradicts the idea of them embracing monotheism. Muir contends that if the Arabs were indeed idolaters when Abraham and Ishmael arrived in the Arabian Peninsula, it wouldn't have deterred their journey. He suggests that the historical consensus supports the authenticity of the story. Furthermore, Muir posits the possibility that a group of descendants of Abraham and Ishmael may have later migrated from Palestine to the Arabian Peninsula, establishing genealogical ties with Arab tribes. He asserts that if such migrations were possible for their descendants, they could have been equally possible for Abraham and Ishmael themselves. Muir's viewpoint challenges the conventional narrative of Abraham and Ishmael's journey to Mecca, suggesting that the historical consensus supports the authenticity of this story.

Sir William Muir and those who share his view suggest that it is possible for a group of the descendants of Abraham and Ishmael to have migrated from Palestine to the Arabian Peninsula, establishing connections and kinship ties with the Arab people. They argue that if such a possibility is considered plausible for the descendants of Abraham and Ishmael, it should also be considered feasible for the two individuals themselves. According to Muir and those who agree with him, this idea is not only plausible but also strongly supported by historical accounts. They argue that it is consistent with the Quran and is mentioned in other sacred texts.

Abraham and Ishmael are said to have laid the foundations of the Sacred House (the Kaaba) in Mecca. The Quran mentions this in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:125): "And [mention] when We made the House a place of return for the people and [a place of] security. And take, [O believers], from the standing place of Abraham a place of prayer. And We charged Abraham and Ishmael, [saying], 'Purify My House for those who perform Tawaf and those who are staying [there] for worship and those who bow and prostrate [in prayer].'" (Translation: Sahih International)

Furthermore, Abraham is depicted as raising the foundations of the House, and Ishmael joins him in making a supplication to God, as mentioned in the Quran (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:127-129): "And [mention] when Abraham and Ishmael were raising the foundations of the House, [saying], 'Our Lord, accept [this] from us. Indeed, You are the Hearing, the Knowing. Our Lord, make us Muslims [in submission] to You and [raise] from our descendants a Muslim [in submission] community. And show us our rites and accept our repentance. Indeed, You are the Accepting of Repentance, the Merciful.'" (Translation: Sahih International)

These verses from the Quran affirm the significance of Abraham and Ishmael's actions in establishing the Sacred House and emphasize their supplication for their descendants to be a Muslim community.

How did Abraham raise the House as a place of return and security for people to believe in Allah alone, and then it became a place for idols and their worship afterward? What were the conditions of worship like in the House after Abraham and Ishmael, and in what manner was it performed? When did these conditions change, and when did idolatry prevail? This is not well-documented by history, and all that exists are assumptions made by those who consider themselves experts in describing what was actually happening.

The Sabians, who worshipped the stars, held significant influence in the Arabian Peninsula. They claimed that they did not worship the stars for their own sake but, in the beginning, they worshipped Allah alone and regarded the stars as manifestations of His creation and power. However, due to the vastness of the universe and the inability of most people to comprehend the concept of divine transcendence, they began to deify the stars. Some volcanic rocks were believed to have fallen from the sky as meteorites, and people thought they were gifts from certain stars. Therefore, these rocks were the first objects associated with these elevated deities and were venerated accordingly. Subsequently, these rocks themselves became objects of worship, and stone idol worship emerged. It reached a point where simply worshipping the Black Stone at the Kaaba was not enough for the Arabs. They would carry with them a stone from the Kaaba during their travels, praying to it and seeking its permission for various activities while observing rituals similar to those performed for the stars and the Creator of the stars. In this way, idolatry became firmly established, and statues were revered and offered sacrifices.

The transition from the original monotheistic beliefs of Abraham and Ishmael to widespread idolatry is not well-documented, and historical records do not provide a clear account of when and how this shift occurred. It is a complex historical process that may have taken place over centuries and could have been influenced by various cultural, social, and religious factors.

This is a depiction that some historians present regarding the evolution of affairs in the Arabian Peninsula, from the construction of the House by Abraham for the worship of Allah, to how matters changed over time and idol worship became prevalent. Herodotus, often considered the "Father of History," mentioned the worship of Al-Lat in the Arabian Peninsula. Diodorus Siculus also mentioned the House of Mecca, which the Arabs held in great reverence. This indicates the long-standing presence of paganism in the Arabian Peninsula and suggests that the religion of Abraham did not endure there for an extended period.

During these centuries, prophets were sent to call their respective tribes in the Arabian Peninsula to worship Allah alone, but the Arabs rejected these messages and persisted in their polytheistic beliefs. Hud, for example, called the people of 'Ad, who resided in the northern region of Hadramaut, to worship Allah alone, but only a few believed in him. The majority of his people arrogantly refused and said: "O Hud, you have not brought us clear evidence, and we are not ones to leave our gods on your say-so, nor are we believers in you." (Quran, Surah Hud, 11:53)

Salih, another prophet, called the people of Thamud, who dwelled in stone dwellings between the Hijaz and the Levant, including the Wadi al-Qura region in the southeastern part of what is now known as Madinah. However, his call to faith did not yield more success than Hud's call to the people of 'Ad. They were ultimately destroyed, much like the people of 'Ad and Thamud, as described in the Quran.

Shu'ayb called the people of Madyan, who resided in the Hijaz region, to worship Allah, but they did not listen to him, and they were afflicted with a fate similar to that of the other nations that rejected their prophets.

The Quran recounts the stories of these prophets and their calls to their respective people to worship Allah alone, as well as the arrogance and stubbornness of their people in persisting with idol worship and their annual pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca. This persisted until Allah's decree to send a messenger.

The statement "And We would not punish until We sent a messenger" (Quran, Surah Al-Isra, 17:15) highlights the concept that Allah did not punish these nations until He had sent a messenger to guide them.

Positions of the Kaaba

Were there positions surrounding the Kaaba since its construction like those assumed by Qusay ibn Kilab in the middle of the 5th century AD when he gathered the leaders of Mecca? Positions like "Al-Hijaba" who held the keys to the Kaaba, "Al-Saqaya" who provided fresh water to the pilgrims, and also served them date wine, "Al-Rifada" responsible for providing food to all pilgrims, "Al-Nadwa" presiding over meetings throughout the year, "Al-Liwaa" a banner carried on a spear and raised as a symbol for the military when heading to battle, and "Al-Qiyada" leading the army during times of war.

I estimate that these positions did not all emerge simultaneously since the construction of the Kaaba. Rather, they developed one after the other, each one independent of the Kaaba's religious significance yet still connected to it by nature.

Mecca, at the time of the Kaaba's construction, might not have been as glorious as one might imagine. It was inhabited by various Bedouin tribes and clans. However, when Isma'il and his father Ibrahim settled there and laid the foundations of the Kaaba, Mecca began to evolve. Over a long period, it transformed into a settlement that resembled a city, or something akin to it. We can say it resembled a city in that it retained some remnants of the early Bedouin way of life. Some historians even suggest that it remained in its Bedouin state until the leadership of Qusay in the middle of the 5th century AD.

It's difficult to envision the continuity of a place with the significance of Mecca, along with its ancient structure (the Kaaba), without considering its connection to the broader world. Mecca served as a crossroads for caravan routes to Yemen, al-Hira, the Levant, and Najd. Additionally, its proximity to the Red Sea facilitated international trade. Thus, it's reasonable to assume that Mecca, to which Ibrahim had called for safety and security, experienced long periods of stability long before Qusay's time.

The Triumph of the Quraysh

The leadership of Mecca remained with the tribe of Jurhum after they had triumphed over the Amaleeq. Mecca's trade flourished during these generations, bringing prosperity to its people. They almost forgot that they resided in a valley with no agricultural resources and that they needed to maintain continuous customs and vigilance. Their neglect reached a point where the waters of Zamzam nearly ran dry, and the Arab tribe of Khuzah even contemplated seizing control of the positions of authority within the sacred city.

However, the warnings of Muddath, the son of 'Amr ibn al-Harith, did not yield the desired results among his people. He realized that their extravagance was temporary and that their authority over the city was fleeting. In response, he secretly deepened the Zamzam well and buried two gazelles made of gold, which were kept at the Kaaba alongside other offerings. He buried them in a pit and covered them with sand, hoping that one day he or someone else would benefit from revealing them. Then, he left Mecca along with the descendants of Isma'il. The authority over Khuzah passed to someone else.

This authority was passed down through generations until it reached Qusay ibn Kilab, the fifth great-grandfather of the Prophet.

Qusay's mother, Fatimah, was the daughter of Sa'd ibn Sahl, and she had married Kilab. She gave birth to Zuhrah and Qusay. Later, Kilab passed away when Qusay was still a child. Fatimah then married Rabi'ah ibn Haram, and he took her with him to Syria. There, she gave birth to Dhirar. Qusay grew up without knowing any father other than Rabi'ah. However, a dispute arose between him and the descendants of Rabi'ah, who accused him of being an outsider, not one of them.

Qusay complained to his mother about the accusations, and she reassured him, saying, "My son, by God, you are nobler than them in lineage. You are the son of Kilab ibn Murrah, and your people are in Mecca near the Sacred House."

Qusay ibn Kilab (400 CE)

Qusay arrived in Mecca and settled there, earning respect among the people of the city due to his noble lineage and good judgment. The keyholder of the Sacred House in Khuzah was Hulail ibn Hubshiyyah, known for his keen insight and wise judgment. When Qusay proposed to marry Hulail's daughter, Hubbah, he welcomed the proposal and married her to him. Qusay continued his business and trade endeavors, accumulating wealth, having many children, and increasing his standing among his people. After Hulail's death, he bequeathed the key to the Sacred House to Hubbah, Qusay's wife. However, Hubbah declined this responsibility and passed the key to Abu Ghabshan al-Khuza'i instead. Abu Ghabshan, who was known for his fondness for alcohol, once sold the key to the Sacred House to Qusay for a sip of wine.

Khuzah realized the significance of their position in Mecca, especially if Qusay remained in control of the key to the Sacred House, especially after he had accumulated wealth and began to gather the Quraysh around him. They disapproved of anyone other than themselves holding a position connected to the Sacred House. Qusay responded by rallying the Quraysh, and some other tribes saw him as the most capable and respected figure in Mecca. They joined him, and Khuzah was expelled from Mecca. All the positions related to the Sacred House were consolidated under Qusay's authority, and the people acknowledged him as their leader and king.

Construction of Houses in Mecca

Some have argued, as previously mentioned, that Mecca had no buildings other than the Kaaba until Qusay took charge. They justify this by claiming that Khuzah and Jurhum, the previous inhabitants of Mecca, did not want any house to stand alongside the House of God, and they did not spend their nights in the Haram but used to leave it. Additionally, they argue that when Qusay assumed authority over Mecca, he instructed the Quraysh to build houses there. He began by constructing the House of Assembly (Dar al-Nadwah), where the elders of Mecca would gather under his leadership to discuss the city's affairs. Their custom was to never make decisions without consensus, and thus, no marriage or agreement was made outside this house. Under Qusay's orders, Quraysh also built houses for themselves. They left space for circumambulation around the Kaaba, and there was a pathway between each pair of houses leading to the circumambulation area.

Abd al-Dar was the eldest son of Qusay, but his brother Abd Manaf had already distinguished himself among the people and had gained honor among them.

As Qusay grew old and his health declined, he realized he could no longer manage the affairs of Mecca. He passed the key to the Kaaba, as well as the management of the House of Assembly, the leadership (generalship), and the provision of food (rafdah) to his son Abd al-Dar. The provision of food was a portion of wealth that the Quraysh would contribute annually, and Qusay used it to provide food to pilgrims during the Hajj season, especially to those who were not well-off and lacked provisions. Qusay was the first to impose the provision of food on the Quraysh when he united and led them, expelling Khuzah from Mecca. He imposed it on them, saying: "O people of Quraysh! You are the neighbors of God, the people of His house, and the people of His sanctuary. Pilgrims are God's guests and visitors to His house, and they have the most right to honor. Therefore, provide them with food and drink during the days of Hajj until they leave your land."

Banu Abd Manaf

Abd al-Dar assumed the responsibilities of the Kaaba, following in his father's footsteps, and his sons continued in his footsteps. However, Banu Abd Manaf held a more distinguished and honorable position among their people. Hashim, Abd Shams, Muttalib, and Nawfal, the sons of Abd Manaf, were particularly prominent. As a result, they all agreed that they should take charge of the duties held by their cousins, the sons of Abd al-Dar. This division of roles caused a split in the opinions of the Quraysh, with some supporting one group and others supporting the other.

Banu Abd Manaf formed the alliance of "Al-Mutayyabin" because they had dipped their hands in perfume that they brought to the Kaaba, and they swore not to break their alliance. On the other hand, Banu Abd al-Dar formed the alliance of "Al-Ahlaf."

Tensions were rising to the point of potential warfare among the Quraysh over this division of roles, but the people eventually called for reconciliation. It was agreed that the sons of Abd Manaf would retain the management of the "Saqayah" (provision of water) and "Rafadah" (provision of food), while the "Hijabah" (custodianship of the Kaaba), "Liwaa" (flag-bearer of the Quraysh), and "Naddwah" (House of Assembly) would remain with Banu Abd al-Dar. Both sides accepted this compromise, and it persisted until the advent of Islam.

Hashim (Year 464 CE)

Hashim held a prominent position among his people and was known for his generosity. He took charge of the duties of providing water (Saqayah) and supplying food (Rafadah), just as his ancestor Qusayy had done. He called upon his people to follow the same practices and principles that Qusayy had advocated.

Hashim urged his people to contribute their own wealth to feed the pilgrims during the season of Hajj. He encouraged each of them to spend their own resources to provide food for the pilgrims. In his view, the visitors to the House of Allah and the pilgrims were guests of Allah and deserved the utmost respect and care. He made it his duty to provide food for all the pilgrims until they departed from Makkah, ensuring their well-being throughout their stay.

Prosperity in Mecca

Hashim's contributions to Mecca extended beyond his own family and even the pilgrims. During a year of famine, he provided food for the people of Mecca, distributing wheat and other provisions, which improved their outlook on life.

Hashim was also known for organizing trade caravans to different regions during both winter and summer seasons. He led a winter caravan to Yemen and a summer caravan to the Levant. Under his leadership, Mecca prospered and its status grew in the eyes of the people of the Arabian Peninsula. It became recognized as the acknowledged capital.

Hashim's success allowed the descendants of Abdul-Muttalib to establish security and peace treaties with neighboring tribes and regions. Hashim himself negotiated a treaty with the Roman Empire and established good relations with the Ghassanid prince, ensuring that Quraysh could safely travel through the Levant. His brother Abdul-Shams secured a trade treaty with the Negus of Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia), and Nawfal and Al-Muttalib entered into alliances with the Persians and trade treaties with the Hamirites in Yemen.

Mecca's status continued to rise, and its people became skilled traders who outperformed their contemporaries. Trade caravans arrived from various directions, and caravans from Mecca were sent out during both the winter and summer seasons. Markets were established around the city to facilitate trade, and Mecca became known for its commerce, including issues related to trade, fair trade, and other aspects of commerce.

Hashim continued to lead and excel in his position of leadership, and no one thought of competing with him. However, his nephew Amr ibn Abd Shams believed he had reached a point where he could challenge Hashim, but his efforts were in vain, and Hashim remained the leader of Mecca.

During one of Hashim's trips to the Levant, he passed by Yathrib (Medina) and saw a woman of noble descent, Salma bint Amr al-Khazrajiyah, who was overseeing a group of traders. Hashim was captivated by her and inquired about her. When he learned that she was divorced and would only marry a man who could protect her and guarantee her safety, he proposed to her. Salma accepted his proposal, knowing his respected position among his people. She moved to Mecca, and together, they had a son who would come to be known as Abdul-Muttalib. Hashim's generosity and leadership left a lasting impact on Mecca, and his legacy continued through his descendants. He passed away during one of his summer journeys in Gaza, and his brother Muttalib succeeded him in his leadership role.

Abdul-Muttalib (Year 495 CE)

Abdul-Muttalib, the son of Hashim, assumed the responsibilities of leadership in Mecca following his uncle Hashim's death. He inherited the position of providing water (Saqiya) and food (Rafadah) for the pilgrims at the Kaaba. However, Abdul-Muttalib faced challenges as he had only one son, Harith, which made managing these duties more difficult.

During Abdul-Muttalib's tenure, the practice was to bring water for the pilgrims from several scattered wells around Mecca and place it in troughs near the Kaaba. Having many children would have been advantageous for the efficient execution of these responsibilities, as they could assist in this work and oversee it.

However, since Abdul-Muttalib had only one son, Harith, he was concerned about the continuity of these responsibilities and the care of the sacred well of Zamzam.

Digging Zamzam

The story of Abdul-Muttalib digging the well of Zamzam is a significant event in Meccan history. Abdul-Muttalib, with his strong desire to uncover the ancient Zamzam well, had been persistent in his efforts. He had a deep-rooted hope that this well, which had been buried for centuries, could be revived.

His yearning for Zamzam was so intense that he would often call out to it during his sleep, urging himself to find it. His dream was to locate the well that had been lost beneath the sands, and he pursued this quest relentlessly.

Under the guidance of a mysterious caller (a "hatif"), Abdul-Muttalib continued his search for Zamzam, feeling that it must still exist somewhere beneath the desert. He eventually discovered the well nestled between the two idols of Isaf and Na'ilah. With the assistance of his son Harith, Abdul-Muttalib dug deep until the water of Zamzam flowed once more.

When the Quraysh learned of the discovery, they wanted to share in the benefits of the well and the treasures that Abdul-Muttalib had found. However, Abdul-Muttalib proposed a compromise: he suggested using divining arrows to determine the ownership of what they had found. Each party would have an equal chance.

This compromise was accepted, and each party, including Abdul-Muttalib, had their divining arrows drawn. The ownership of the well and its treasures was decided by this process, and it was decreed that Abdul-Muttalib would have control over the well and its gifts to the Kaaba. The well of Zamzam was a great blessing to Mecca and its people, providing a valuable source of water for generations to come.

The Vow and Its Fulfillment

Abdul-Muttalib sensed his diminishing status among his people due to having fewer children. Therefore, he vowed that if he were blessed with ten sons who reached maturity, he would sacrifice one of them to God at the Kaaba, similar to what he encountered when digging Zamzam. Abdul-Muttalib was eventually blessed with ten sons, and when they reached maturity, he called upon them to fulfill his vow, and they obediently agreed.

To fulfill this vow, each of Abdul-Muttalib's sons wrote his name on a small arrow (a "qadah"). Abdul-Muttalib gathered these arrows and took them to the diviner (a "sahib al-qadah") at the Kaaba. During this time, when the Arabs faced uncertainty, they would consult the diviner through these arrows to seek the counsel of their chief deities.

Abdul-Muttalib's youngest son, Abdullah, was chosen by the divining arrows. Consequently, Abdul-Muttalib took Abdullah by the hand and prepared to fulfill his vow by sacrificing him at the Kaaba, following the tradition of the Arabs. However, as he proceeded, the entire Quraysh, representing all clans, interceded and begged him not to proceed with the sacrifice, asking him to seek an alternative solution.

Abdul-Muttalib questioned them regarding what he should do to please the deities. Al-Mughira ibn Abdullah al-Makhzumi suggested offering camels as compensation. The Quraysh consulted further and reached a consensus to go to an oracle in Ta'if, located in the city of Al-Madinah, as such oracles were consulted in matters like these.

Upon reaching the oracle, the oracle asked them how many camels would please their Lord. They replied, "Ten camels." The oracle advised them to return to their land, offer ten camels, and strike the divining arrows on them. If the arrows came out in favor of their cause, they should increase the number of camels until their Lord was pleased.

They accepted the oracle's advice, and the divining arrows pointed to Abdullah. So they increased the number of camels until they offered a hundred camels. Only then did the divining arrows favor the camels over Abdullah.

The Quraysh told Abdul-Muttalib that his Lord had accepted the camels as an alternative to the vow. Thus, the camels were sacrificed, and none of them were held back.

Abraha and the Story of the People of the Elephant

The significance of Mecca and the sanctity of the Kaaba led some distant regions to build temples in an attempt to divert people away from Mecca and its sacred house. The Ghassanids established a temple in Al-Hirah, while Abraha Al-Ashram built a temple in Yemen. However, these efforts did not deter the Arabs from Mecca or the Kaaba. Abraha, in particular, lavishly decorated his Yemeni temple with exquisite furnishings, hoping to attract people from the Arabian Peninsula and divert their attention from Mecca.

When the Arabs continued to flock to the ancient Kaaba and the people of Yemen did not consider their pilgrimage valid except to Mecca, Abraha felt frustrated. He decided to destroy the Kaaba, which was a bold and audacious plan. He prepared an army led by a massive elephant and set out for Mecca.

When the Arabs heard about Abraha's intentions, they feared the consequences and felt alarmed that a foreigner would dare to demolish their holy house and the idols they worshipped. A nobleman named Dhu Nawas, from the people of Yemen, rose to the occasion. He rallied his people and, along with other Arab tribes, formed an alliance to resist Abraha and prevent him from destroying the House of God.

However, they could not convince Abraha to abandon his plan. Instead, Abraha's army defeated them, taking some of them as prisoners. Nafil ibn Habib Al-Khuza'i from the tribe of Khuza'ah also attempted to confront Abraha, gathering warriors from the tribes of Shahran and Nahis. However, he, too, was defeated, and he and his followers were taken as captives, serving as proof of Abraha's dominance over his campaign.

When Abraha approached Ta'if, its people informed him that his intended target was not the Kaaba in Mecca but rather a temple they called "Al-Lat." They even provided guides to lead him to Mecca.

As Abraha neared Mecca, he sent a messenger on horseback to inquire about the leader of Mecca. The messenger was directed to Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim. Abdul-Muttalib was presented with Abraha's message, in which Abraha claimed that he did not come to wage war but rather to demolish the Kaaba. He stated that if the people of Mecca did not oppose him, there would be no need for bloodshed.

Abdul-Muttalib rejected any compromise regarding the sanctity of the Kaaba and its preservation, even when offered a third of the wealth of Tihama (the region of Abraha). He remained steadfast in his commitment to safeguard the Kaaba, resisting all attempts to persuade him otherwise.

Upon returning to his camp, Abdul-Muttalib raised his plea to God, seeking His intervention to protect His sacred house from Abraha's imminent attack. Meanwhile, the Quraysh prepared to abandon Mecca and sought refuge in the mountains, fearing Abraha and his army when they would enter the sacred city to destroy the Kaaba.

The night before Abraha planned to attack Mecca, he suffered from a severe and unprecedented epidemic, believed to be smallpox. The disease spread rapidly within his army, causing fatalities beyond measure. The victims included his soldiers, and their numbers dwindled daily.

When the epidemic reached Abraha himself, he experienced intense suffering, and his condition rapidly deteriorated. He ordered his troops to retreat and return to Yemen, but the withdrawal was chaotic, and many of his soldiers perished along the way.

As the survivors and those who had guided Abraha to Mecca fled, the people of Mecca received news of Abraha's army's destruction. They had feared the consequences of foreign intervention but were now relieved to find their sanctuary unharmed. This incident became immortalized in Islamic history and is mentioned in the Quran in Surah Al-Fil (The Elephant).

The year of the Elephant marked a significant event, with Abraha's ill-fated expedition highlighting the inviolability and sanctity of the Kaaba in the hearts and minds of the Arabs and reinforcing its status as a place of pilgrimage and devotion.

Mecca's Status After the Elephant Incident

The remarkable and miraculous Elephant Incident significantly elevated Mecca's religious standing, bolstered its commercial importance, and intensified the commitment of its people to safeguarding their city's distinguished status. They were determined to protect it against any attempts to diminish its significance or violate its sanctity.

The people of Mecca became even more devoted to preserving their city's prestige, as it granted them prosperity and luxury in a vast desert landscape, beyond imagination. To them, wine was as beloved as anything, and they indulged in it with great enthusiasm. It provided them with an avenue to indulge in their desires and pleasures. Additionally, they found delight in their bondswomen and slaves, trading them to enhance their wealth, while valuing the freedom of their city. They were vigilant in defending this freedom and resisting any aggressor who dared to infringe upon it.

Nothing was more appealing to the Meccans than gathering to enjoy the pleasures of wine and socializing around the construction of the Kaaba. Alongside the numerous idols, each tribe of the Arabian Peninsula had its own deity or deities represented at the Kaaba. The prominent members of the Quraysh and the city's leaders would gather, sharing news from the surrounding regions and caravans or exchanging stories about the Bedouins, the Yemen, and the various tribes across the desert.

These stories and news were passed on orally from one tribe to another, as each tribe had its storytellers and message bearers. It was as though every tribe had its own broadcaster and a wireless system for receiving and disseminating information. The storytellers narrated events from the wilderness, recounted tales from their neighbors, and enjoyed wine as they waited for news to arrive.

The idols, represented by stone statues, overlooked these gatherings. Those participating in the festivities were under the protection of the Kaaba, which had designated Mecca as a sanctuary and a place of security. The idols enforced rules that forbade anyone from entering Mecca as a visitor unless they were accompanied by a guardian who would ensure they did not discuss religious matters or reveal any of their beliefs. This strict policy prevented the presence of Jewish or Christian communities, as in Yathrib (later known as Medina).

Mecca, with its holy sanctuary, retained its sovereignty and independence, much like the Arabian tribes governing themselves. The people of Mecca were unwilling to concede authority to outsiders, and they cherished their autonomy and the freedom of their city. They found great comfort in ensuring that their own governance and protection of their pagan beliefs remained intact. They did not seek to dominate or interfere in the affairs of other tribes, nor did they aspire to extend their sovereignty or engage in conquests, unlike the ambitions of the Romans or Persians.

As a result, the Arabian tribes remained autonomous entities, thriving under the umbrella of Bedouin culture and the rugged lifestyle they treasured.

The Dwellings of the People of Mecca

The homes of the people of Mecca surrounded the precinct of the Kaaba, with varying distances depending on each family's status and the significance of their presence. The Quraysh tribe was closest to the Kaaba, and it had the most frequent connections to it. They had the responsibility for the Kaaba's upkeep, as well as the care of the Zamzam and all the honorary titles bestowed by their pagan customs. Wars were even fought to protect these privileges, alliances were formed for the same purpose, and peace treaties were established between tribes, recorded in the Kaaba as a testament and a witness to their commitment. These oaths were upheld, and the deities were invoked to bring divine retribution upon anyone who violated them.

Behind the Quraysh homes came the dwellings of the tribes less directly connected to the Kaaba, followed by those of other tribes even further removed. Eventually, one reached the homes of the slaves and the destitute. Christians and Jews in Mecca were slaves, as previously mentioned, so their accommodations were distant from the Kaaba on the outskirts of the city. This separation allowed them to practice their respective religions without coming into contact with the glory of the Quraysh or the nobles of the holy city. This arrangement also permitted them to practice their beliefs privately and without interference. They were free to conduct their religious rituals without interference from their Muslim neighbors.

What they heard or spoke of religious stories, Christian or Jewish, had no connection to the pride of the Quraysh or the nobility of the holy city. They lived in areas that allowed them to separate themselves from the sounds of revelry and merriment, as they would hear stories from the pagans around them, which they encountered during their journeys or when passing by various places of worship and monasteries.

However, rumors began circulating about a Prophet who would soon appear among the Arabs. These stories disrupted some households. Abu Sufyan, for example, once criticized Umayya ibn Abi al-Salt for repeating what the monks had been saying. Abu Sufyan might have had a point that day. He could have said to his companion, "These monks only speak about such things because they are ignorant of their own religion. They need a Prophet to guide them. We, on the other hand, have our idols to bring us closer to God, and we have no need for anything else. We must combat any talk like this."

His statement could have been justified because of his staunch loyalty to Mecca and its paganism. At that time, he might not have realized that the era of guidance was approaching, that Muhammad, peace be upon him, was coming to illuminate the world with the light of monotheism and the message of truth.

Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib

Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib was a handsome and charming young man. The women of Mecca were captivated by his beauty. Their admiration for him increased when they heard about his vow to sacrifice one hundred camels to redeem himself if his father's camels were not accepted as a ransom. However, fate had a different plan for Abdullah. He was destined to be the honored son of a lineage steeped in history. 

Similarly, Amina bint Wahb was chosen to be his mother. She married him, but their marriage was short-lived, as she passed away only a few months after their wedding. Abdullah did not survive her for long and died while he was still young. Amina, his widow, lived on and gave birth to Muhammad, who would grow up to become the Prophet of Islam, although she, too, passed away when Muhammad was still a child.